{"id":2352,"date":"2020-09-15T16:53:03","date_gmt":"2020-09-15T16:53:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/live-cornell-law-review.pantheonsite.io\/?p=2352"},"modified":"2020-09-15T16:53:03","modified_gmt":"2020-09-15T16:53:03","slug":"against-prosecutors","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/2020\/09\/15\/against-prosecutors\/","title":{"rendered":"Against Prosecutors"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>It has now become common, at least among progressive criminal justice scholars, to argue that the criminal justice system could be fixed\u2014or at least greatly improved\u2014if we simply regulated prosecutors more. If we curbed their unfettered discretion.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">1<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">1. ANGELA J. DAVIS, ARBITRARY JUSTICE: THE POWER OF THE AMERICAN PROSECUTOR 15\u201317, 192\u201394 (2007).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> If they sought less harsh punishments. Or if they charged fewer people, which arguably has contributed more to mass incarceration than the War on Drugs.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">2<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">2. &nbsp;JOHN F. PFAFF, LOCKED IN: THE TRUE CAUSES OF MASS INCARCERATION\u2014AND HOW TO ACHIEVE REAL REFORM 206 (2017) (concluding that \u201c[p]rosecutors have been and remain the engines driving mass&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_2');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> If we required them to have open file discovery\u2014the \u2019220 norm in civil cases\u2014instead of keeping evidence, even exculpatory evidence, close to the vest.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">3<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">3. Cf. Miriam H. Baer, Timing Brady, 115 COLUM. L. REV. 1, 43, 57\u201358 (2015) (exploring timing and institutional design as a way to increase prosecutorial compliance with discovery obligations). See&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_3');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> If they confronted their implicit biases about race and class and everything else.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">4<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">4. Jerry Kang et al., Implicit Bias in the Courtroom, 59 UCLA L. REV. 1124, 1139\u201342 (2012) (discussing implicit biases among prosecutors); Robert J. Smith &amp; Justin D. Levinson, The Impact of&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_4');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> If we limited their power to coerce pleas<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">5<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">5. See, e.g., Stephanos Bibas, Regulating the Plea-Bargaining Market: From Caveat Emptor to Consumer Protection, 99 CALIF. L. REV. 1117, 1151\u201360 (2011) (proposing protections for defendants who enter&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_5');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> or fixed things so the prosecutors who investigate and advocate are not the same prosecutors who in effect adjudicate decisions.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">6<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">6. See, e.g., Rachel E. Barkow, Institutional Design and the Policing of Prosecutors: Lessons from Administrative Law, 61 STAN. L. REV. 869, 898 (2009) (arguing that borrowing from the institutional&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_6');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> The suggestions continue. If we elected progressive prosecutors.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">7<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">7. BAZELON, supra note 2, at 147\u201395; Angela J. Davis, The Progressive Prosecutor: An Imperative for Criminal Justice Reform, 87 FORDHAM L. REV. 1, 1 (2018) (urging the election of more progressive&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_7');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> If we at least leveled the funding between prosecutors and public defenders.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">8<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">8. WILLIAM J. STUNTZ, THE COLLAPSE OF AMERICAN CRIMINAL JUSTICE 299 (2011); David Rudovsky, Gideon and the Effective Assistance of Counsel: The Rhetoric and the Reality, 32 LAW &amp; INEQ. 371, 377\u201382&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_8');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> I too made some of these arguments.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">9<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">9. See, e.g., I. Bennett Capers, Cross Dressing and the Criminal, 20 YALE J. OF&nbsp;L. &amp; HUMAN. 1, 22\u201330 (2008) (overviewing exercises of perspective \u201cswitching\u201d for actors in the criminal&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_9');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Not anymore.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The argument I put forward in this Article may seem radical, but if I may channel Ralph Ellison, \u201c[b]ear with me.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">10<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">10. RALPH ELLISON, INVISIBLE MAN 12 (1952).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Because I subscribe to the belief that \u201csubject position is everything in my analysis of the law,\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">11<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">11. PATRICIA J. WILLIAMS, THE ALCHEMY OF RACE AND RIGHTS 3 (1991) (\u201cSince subject position is everything in my analysis of the law, you deserve to know that it\u2019s a bad morning.\u201d).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> it is worth disclosing that I come to this argument not just as a criminal justice scholar but also as a former federal prosecutor. That argument is this: it is time to turn away from prosecution as we know it. As a federal prosecutor I put hundreds of defendants, mostly brown and black and almost always poor, in prison as part of the War on Drugs. But if the goal was to limit the influx of drugs in this country, what I did was an abject failure.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">12<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">12. See MICHELLE ALEXANDER, THE NEW JIM CROW: MASS INCARCERATION IN THE AGE OF COLORBLINDNESS 60 (rev. ed. 2012) (arguing that the war on drugs is the \u201csingle most important cause of the explosion in&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_12');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> And it is not just drug prosecutions. Even looking back on many of the other cases I prosecuted involving victimless \u201ccrimes\u201d I certainly know I did more harm than good. I certainly contributed to mass incarceration and to the separation of families. But to what end?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Just consider. Each year our jails cycle through approximately ten million people, the vast majority charged with nonviolent crimes.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">13<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">13. ZHEN ZENG, U.S. DEP\u2019TOF JUSTICE, NCJ 251210, JAIL INMATES IN 2016, at 1 (2018), https:\/\/www.bjs.gov\/content\/pub\/pdf\/ji16.pdf [https:\/\/perma.cc\/ TDW6-B2K4] (noting that \u201c[j]ails reported 10.6&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_13');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> We are at a point where one in every three adults in America has a criminal record,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">14<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">14. CHIDI UMEZ &amp; REBECCA PIRIUS, BARRIERS TO WORK: IMPROVING EMPLOYMENT IN LICENSED OCCUPATIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH CRIMINAL RECORDS 1 (2018), https:\/\/&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_14');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> and where for every fifteen persons born in 2001, one will likely spend time in jail or prison.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">15<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">15. THOMAS&nbsp;P. BONCZAR, U.S. DEP\u2019T OF&nbsp;JUSTICE, NCJ 197976, PREVALENCE OF&nbsp;IMPRISONMENT IN THE&nbsp;U.S. POPULATION, 1974\u20132001 7 (2003), https:\/\/www.bjs.gov\/ content\/pub\/pdf\/piusp01.pdf&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_15');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Compared to other countries, the crime rate in the United States is not exceptional,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">16<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">16. <em>See, e.g<\/em>., U.N. OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME, GLOBAL STUDY ON HOMICIDE 12, 126 (2013) (showing that the U.S. homicide rate is below the global average).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> and yet we have by far the highest incarceration rate in the world.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">17<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">17. CHIDI UMEZ &amp; REBECCA PIRIUS, BARRIERS TO WORK: IMPROVING EMPLOYMENT IN LICENSED OCCUPATIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH CRIMINAL RECORDS 1 (2018), https:\/\/&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_2352_1('footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_17');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_2352_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> None of this can be solved by simply tinkering with the machinery of prosecution. It is time to rethink why and how we prosecute in the first place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What would it mean to turn away from public prosecutors and not rely on the criminal justice system as the first responder to address social ills, such as mental illness and poverty (two of the main drivers of our prison industrial complex)? More radically, what would it mean to turn away from state controlled prosecution as the primary way to address crime? What would it mean to replace a system where prosecutors hold a monopoly in deciding which cases are worthy of pursuit with a system in which \u201cwe the people,\u201d including those of us who have traditionally had little power, would be empowered to seek and achieve justice ourselves?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This Article attempts to answer these questions. It begins in Part I with the enormous, monopolistic power public prosecutors wield. But this power is not inevitable. Indeed, public prosecutors are not even inevitable. This is the main point of Part II, which surfaces the rarely discussed history of criminal prosecutions in this country before the advent of the public prosecutor, when private prosecutions were the norm and in a very real sense criminal prosecutions belonged to \u201cthe people.\u201d Part II then demonstrates that our history of private prosecutions and the turn to public prosecutions is more than just a curious footnote, as this very history has, in turn, shaped criminal law and justice as we know it. Part III, in many ways the core of this Article, makes the argument for turning away from public prosecutors and restoring prosecution to the people. It also returns to the question that motivates this Article: what benefits might accrue if victims had the option to pursue criminal charges through private prosecution or public prosecution? Part III argues there would be several benefits, including democratizing criminal justice and, quite possibly, reducing mass incarceration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>To read the entire Article, click here: <a href=\"https:\/\/live-cornell-law-review.pantheonsite.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/11\/Capers-final.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Against Prosecutors<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_2352_1();\">References<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_2352_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_2352_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_2352_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">References<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">ANGELA J. DAVIS, ARBITRARY JUSTICE: THE POWER OF THE AMERICAN PROSECUTOR 15\u201317, 192\u201394 (2007).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">&nbsp;JOHN F. PFAFF, LOCKED IN: THE TRUE CAUSES OF MASS INCARCERATION\u2014AND HOW TO ACHIEVE REAL REFORM 206 (2017) (concluding that \u201c[p]rosecutors have been and remain the engines driving mass incarceration\u201d); <em>see also <\/em>EMILY BAZELON, CHARGED: THE NEW MOVEMENT TO TRANSFORM AMERICAN PROSECUTION AND END MASS INCARCERATION 77\u201381 (2019) (arguing that prosecutors bear much of the responsibility for over-incarceration).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Cf<\/em>. Miriam H. Baer, <em>Timing <\/em>Brady, 115 COLUM. L. REV. 1, 43, 57\u201358 (2015) (exploring timing and institutional design as a way to increase prosecutorial compliance with discovery obligations). <em>See generally <\/em>Alafair S. Burke, <em>Revisiting Prosecutorial Disclosure<\/em>, 84 IND. L.J. 481, 514 (2009) (arguing for open-file discovery); Darryl K. Brown, <em>The Decline of Defense Counsel and the Rise of Accuracy in Criminal Adjudication<\/em>, 93 CALIF. L. REV. 1585, 1637 (2005) (similar).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jerry Kang et al., <em>Implicit Bias in the Courtroom<\/em>, 59 UCLA L. REV. 1124, 1139\u201342 (2012) (discussing implicit biases among prosecutors); Robert J. Smith &amp; Justin D. Levinson, <em>The Impact of Implicit Racial Bias on the Exercise of Prosecutorial Discretion<\/em>, 35 SEATTLE U. L. REV. 795, 797 (2012) (arguing that \u201cimplicit racial attitudes and stereotypes skew prosecutorial decisions in a range of racially biased ways\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g<\/em>., Stephanos Bibas, <em>Regulating the Plea-Bargaining Market: From Caveat Emptor to Consumer Protection<\/em>, 99 CALIF. L. REV. 1117, 1151\u201360 (2011) (proposing protections for defendants who enter into plea bargains similar to protections for consumer contracts); I. Bennett Capers, <em>The Prosecutor\u2019s Turn<\/em>, 57 WM &amp; MARY L. REV. 1277, 1299\u20131305 (2016) [hereinafter Capers, <em>The Prosecutor\u2019s Turn<\/em>] (discussing plea bargaining in the context of the Due Process Clause); Eric S. Fish, <em>Against Adversary Prosecution<\/em>, 103 IOWA L. REV. 1419, 1444\u201345 (2018) (\u201cAmerican criminal justice is essentially a system of negotiated dispositions administered by prosecutors.\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g<\/em>., Rachel E. Barkow, <em>Institutional Design and the Policing of Prosecutors: Lessons from Administrative Law<\/em>, 61 STAN. L. REV. 869, 898 (2009) (arguing that borrowing from the institutional design inherent in administrative law checks could do much to rein in prosecutorial excess).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">BAZELON, <em>supra <\/em>note 2, at 147\u201395; Angela J. Davis, <em>The Progressive Prosecutor: An Imperative for Criminal Justice Reform<\/em>, 87 FORDHAM L. REV. 1, 1 (2018) (urging the election of more progressive prosecutors); <em>cf<\/em>. David Alan Sklansky, <em>The Progressive Prosecutor\u2019s Handbook<\/em>, 50 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. ONLINE 25, 27 (2017) (providing ten suggestions of \u201cbest practices\u201d for progressive district attorneys).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">WILLIAM J. STUNTZ, THE COLLAPSE OF AMERICAN CRIMINAL JUSTICE 299 (2011); David Rudovsky, Gideon <em>and the Effective Assistance of Counsel: The Rhetoric and the Reality<\/em>, 32 LAW &amp; INEQ. 371, 377\u201382 (2014) (discussing the depth of the funding crisis); Eve Brensike Primus, <em>Defense Counsel and Public Defense<\/em>, <em>in <\/em>3 REFORMING CRIMINAL JUSTICE: PRETRIAL AND TRIAL PROCESSES 121, 123\u201326 (Erik Luna ed. 2017); Note, <em>Effectively Ineffective: The Failure of Courts to Address Underfunded Indigent Defense Systems<\/em>, 118 HARV. L. REV. 1731, 1733\u201335 (2005).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g<\/em>., I. Bennett Capers, <em>Cross Dressing and the Criminal<\/em>, 20 YALE J. OF&nbsp;L. &amp; HUMAN. 1, 22\u201330 (2008) (overviewing exercises of perspective \u201cswitching\u201d for actors in the criminal justice system); Bennett Capers, <em>Real Rape Too<\/em>, 99 CALIF. L. REV. 1259, 1299\u20131300 (2011) [hereinafter Capers, <em>Real Rape Too<\/em>] (arguing for gender-neutrality and better training for prosecutors of sexual assault); Capers,&nbsp;<em>The Prosecutor\u2019s Turn<\/em>, <em>supra <\/em>note 5, at 1299\u20131305 (discussing heightened due&nbsp;process requirements for prosecutors who plea bargain).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">RALPH ELLISON, INVISIBLE MAN 12 (1952).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">PATRICIA J. WILLIAMS, THE ALCHEMY OF RACE AND RIGHTS 3 (1991) (\u201cSince subject position is everything in my analysis of the law, you deserve to know that it\u2019s a bad morning.\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_12');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See <\/em>MICHELLE ALEXANDER, THE NEW JIM CROW: MASS INCARCERATION IN THE AGE OF COLORBLINDNESS 60 (rev. ed. 2012) (arguing that the war on drugs is the \u201csingle most important cause of the explosion in incarceration rates in the United States\u201d). <em>See generally <\/em>STEVEN WISOTSKY, BEYOND THE WAR ON DRUGS: OVERCOMING A FAILED PUBLIC POLICY 8 (1990) (\u201cOne way or another, no matter what the War on Drugs does to supply, the black market in cocaine will play its trump: it thrives on enforcement, depends on it.\u201d); PAULA MALLEA, THE WAR ON DRUGS: A FAILED EXPERIMENT 11 (2014) (\u201cIt is by now indisputable that the War on Drugs has failed in all of its objectives.\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_13');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_13\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">ZHEN ZENG, U.S. DEP\u2019TOF JUSTICE, NCJ 251210, JAIL INMATES IN 2016, at 1 (2018), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bjs.gov\/content\/pub\/pdf\/ji16.pdf<\/span> [<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/ TDW6-B2K4\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/<\/span> TDW6-B2K4<\/a>] (noting that \u201c[j]ails reported 10.6 million admissions during 2016\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_14');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_14\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">CHIDI UMEZ &amp; REBECCA PIRIUS, BARRIERS TO WORK: IMPROVING EMPLOYMENT IN LICENSED OCCUPATIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH CRIMINAL RECORDS 1 (2018), https:\/\/ www.ncsl.org\/Portals\/1\/Documents\/Labor\/Licensing\/criminalRecords_v06_ web.pdf [<a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/JT77-R98T\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/JT77-R98T<\/span><\/a>]; THE SENTENCING PROJECT, AMERICANS WITH CRIMINAL RECORDS 1 (2014), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/wp-content\/up<\/span> loads\/2015\/11\/Americans-with-Criminal-Records-Poverty-and-OpportunityProfile.pdf [<a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3Z3-RLRP\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3Z3-RLRP<\/span><\/a>].<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_15');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_15\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">THOMAS&nbsp;P. BONCZAR, U.S. DEP\u2019T OF&nbsp;JUSTICE, NCJ 197976, PREVALENCE OF&nbsp;IMPRISONMENT IN THE&nbsp;U.S. POPULATION, 1974\u20132001 7 (2003), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bjs.gov\/<\/span> content\/pub\/pdf\/piusp01.pdf [<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/7BTT-SXDS\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/7BTT-SXDS<\/span><\/a>].<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_16');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_16\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g<\/em>., U.N. OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME, GLOBAL STUDY ON HOMICIDE 12, 126 (2013) (showing that the U.S. homicide rate is below the global average).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_2352_1_17');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_2352_1_17\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">CHIDI UMEZ &amp; REBECCA PIRIUS, BARRIERS TO WORK: IMPROVING EMPLOYMENT IN LICENSED OCCUPATIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH CRIMINAL RECORDS 1 (2018), https:\/\/ www.ncsl.org\/Portals\/1\/Documents\/Labor\/Licensing\/criminalRecords_v06_ web.pdf [<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/JT77-R98T\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/JT77-R98T<\/span><\/a>]; THE SENTENCING PROJECT, AMERICANS WITH CRIMINAL RECORDS 1 (2014), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/wp-content\/up<\/span> loads\/2015\/11\/Americans-with-Criminal-Records-Poverty-and-OpportunityProfile.pdf [<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3Z3-RLRP\" target=\"_blank\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3Z3-RLRP<\/span><\/a>]. <\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_2352_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_2352_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_2352_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_2352_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_2352_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_2352_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_2352_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_2352_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_2352_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_2352_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_2352_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_2352_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_2352_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_2352_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Each year our jails cycle through approximately ten million people, the vast majority charged with nonviolent crimes. We are at a point where one in every three adults in America has a criminal record, and where for every fifteen persons born in 2001, one will likely spend time in jail or prison. Compared to other countries, the crime rate in the United States is not exceptional, and yet we have by far the highest incarceration rate in the world. None of this can be solved by simply tinkering with the machinery of prosecution. It is time to rethink why and how we prosecute in the first place. What would it mean to turn away from public prosecutors and not rely on the criminal justice system as the first responder to address social ills, such as mental illness and poverty (two of the main drivers of our prison industrial complex)? More radically, what would it mean to turn away from state controlled prosecution as the primary way to address crime? What would it mean to replace a system where prosecutors hold a monopoly in deciding which cases are worthy of pursuit with a system in which \u201cwe the people,\u201d including those of us who have traditionally had little power, would be empowered to seek and achieve justice ourselves? This Article attempts to answer these questions.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[13,14,98,51],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2352","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-archives","category-articles","category-issue-6-print-volume-105-archives","category-print-volume-105-archives"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2352","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2352"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2352\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2352"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2352"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2352"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}