{"id":297,"date":"2019-07-15T12:45:05","date_gmt":"2019-07-15T12:45:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/live-cornell-law-review.pantheonsite.io\/?p=297"},"modified":"2019-07-15T12:45:05","modified_gmt":"2019-07-15T12:45:05","slug":"traveling-while-hispanic-border-patrol-immigration-investigatory-stops-at-tsa-checkpoints-and-hispanic-appearance","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/2019\/07\/15\/traveling-while-hispanic-border-patrol-immigration-investigatory-stops-at-tsa-checkpoints-and-hispanic-appearance\/","title":{"rendered":"&#8220;Traveling While Hispanic&#8221;: Border Patrol Immigration Investigatory Stops at TSA Checkpoints and Hispanic Appearance"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>In 1896, Justice Harlan dissented against the \u201cseparate, but equal\u201d doctrine established by&nbsp;<em>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/em>,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">1<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">1. 163 U.S. 537 (1896).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;saying,<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>[I]n view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, ruling class of citizens. There is no caste here. Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights,&nbsp;<em>all citizens are equal before the law<\/em>.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">2<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">2. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 559 (Harlan, J., dissenting) (emphasis added).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p>It took the Supreme Court over sixty years to finally overrule the \u201cseparate, but equal\u201d doctrine in&nbsp;<em>Brown v. Board of Education<\/em>,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">3<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">3. 347 U.S. 483, 495 (1954).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;but only twenty-one years later in 1975, the Court itself established another doctrine that downgraded people of Hispanic origin to second-class citizens.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In&nbsp;<em>United States v. Brignoni-Ponce<\/em>,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">4<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">4. 422 U.S. 873 (1975).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> the Supreme Court sanctioned the use of \u201capparent Mexican ancestry\u201d as a valid factor in an immigration law enforcement officer\u2019s analysis on whether to detain a suspected undocumented immigrant because \u201c[t]he likelihood that any given person of Mexican ancestry is an alien is high enough to make Mexican appearance a relevant factor.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">5<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">5. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 885\u201387.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;Through the years, this ethnic classification has evolved without any explanation in the courts into its current vague and all-encompassing form: \u201cHispanic appearance.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">6<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">6. <em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Nicacio v. INS, 797 F.2d 700, 701 (9th Cir. 1985).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;This unclear and over-generalized ethnic classification is still widely used today by the United States Border Patrol (USBP) in their immigration investigatory stops<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">7<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">7. The label of \u201cimmigration investigatory stops\u201d throughout the Note refers to those&nbsp;Terry&nbsp;investigatory stops conducted by USBP officers to question individuals about their immigration&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_7');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;and upheld on a daily basis by federal courts around the country, especially those courts located in the southern border.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The \u201cHispanic appearance\u201d classification must raise concerns for all people of Hispanic origin and minority groups around the country. Both 8 U.S.C. \u00a7 1357 and 8 C.F.R. \u00a7 278.1 authorize USBP to conduct immigration investigatory stops of individuals suspected to be aliens within a 100-mile border zone along the United States border.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">8<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">8. With respect to powers of the immigration officers and employees, 8 U.S.C. \u00a7 1357 (1994) provides: &#8220;a) Any officer or employee of the Service authorized under regulations prescribed by the&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_8');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While most of the immigration investigatory stops take place within the southern border, the 100-mile border zone extends the USBP\u2019s authorization to conduct these stops within 100 air miles of the Canadian border, the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, as well as within the perimeters of Alaska and Hawaii.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">9<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">9. <em>See Area Search Warrants in Border Zones: <\/em>Almeida-Sanchez <em>and <\/em>Camara, 84 YALE L.J. 355, 357\u201358 (1974).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> According to the American Civil Liberties Union, \u201c[r]oughly two thirds of the United States population lives within the 100-mile border zone[,] . . . [t]hat\u2019s about 200 million people.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">10<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">10. The Constitution in the 100-Mile Border Zone, AM. CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/other\/constitution-100-mile-border-zone [https:\/\/perma .cc\/74MP-ZAZ6] (last visited Sept. 20, 2019). Nine&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_10');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> As these figures suggest, USBP officers patrol more than just the border.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Although the USBP\u2019s mission of finding and locating undocumented immigrants has been an issue for the agency since its inception, the recent harsh immigration policies of the Trump Administration have sparked fear in immigrant communities nationwide. Under the Obama Administration, immigration law enforcement agencies were previously instructed to prioritize locating and deporting undocumented immigrants with criminal backgrounds.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">11<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">11. See Wesley Lowery, Federal Agents Ask Domestic Flight Passengers to Show IDs in Search for Immigrant Ordered Deported, WASH. POST (Feb. 24, 2017),&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_11');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;However, the Trump Administration now has issued new guidelines to these agencies that empower them to \u201ctarget, detain and deport any of the millions of immigrants currently in the United States without documentation, including those without past criminal convictions.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">12<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">12. <em>Id.<\/em><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;In addition, some of the Trump Administration\u2019s objectives in immigration law enforcement include recruiting 5,000 new USBP officers by lowering their hiring standards<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">13<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">13. See&nbsp;Exec. Order No. 13,767, 82 Fed. Reg. 8,793 (Jan. 25, 2017); Vivian Yee &amp; Ron Nixon,&nbsp;To Detain More Immigrants, Trump Administration to Speed Border Hiring, N.Y. TIMES&nbsp;(Apr. 12,&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_13');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;and \u201c[i]ncreas[ing] northern border security.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">14<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">14. Trump Administration Immigration Policy Priorities, OFFICE OF THE PRESS SECRETARY, THE WHITE HOUSE (Oct. 8, 2017), https:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/brief&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_14');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>On their face, these policies seem to only target undocumented immigrants nationwide. However, the reality is that immigration law enforcement agencies currently enforce these policies in a way that also harms U.S. citizens and documented immigrants from minority groups.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">15<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">15. See, e.g., Alvaro Huerta, The \u2018War on Immigrants\u2019: Racist Policies in the Trump Era,HUFFINGTON POST (Aug. 7 2017), https:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_15');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Current enforcement of these immigration policies harms members of minority groups because of deeply flawed and outdated legal standards\u2014like the Hispanic appearance classification\u2014that should not persist under today\u2019s vastly different circumstances.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There is no better example that illustrates the insidiousness of the enforcement of these flawed and outdated legal standards than the USBP\u2019s immigration investigatory stops on domestic travelers at the Transportation Security Administration\u2019s (TSA) pre-boarding screening checkpoints at airports, typically along the southern border. These immigration investigatory stops occur frequently and are based solely on the travelers\u2019 race and ethnicity,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">16<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">16. See, e.g., Jinjoo Lee, Cornell Graduate Students Arrested Near U.S.-Mexico Border, CORNELL DAILY SUN (Mar. 27, 2013), http:\/\/cornellsun.com\/2013\/03\/27\/&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_16');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> but perhaps most importantly, the circumstances under which the USBP conducts these immigration investigatory stops and the legal basis sanctioning them render the Fourth Amendment\u2019s safeguards of domestic travelers ineffective.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">17<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">17. <em>See infra <\/em>Parts III and IV.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>TSA pre-boarding screening checkpoints usually follow the same security procedures in every airport in the United States.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_18');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_18');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">18<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">18. See, e.g., JBG TRAVELS, 3046 Going Through TSA Security Check Point, YOUTUBE (Dec. 18, 2016), https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=t7fBqju2GJY [https:\/\/perma.cc\/MM27-TAWX] (depicting the TSA security&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_18');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_18').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_18', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Travelers wait in line with their carry-on luggage along corridors formed by retractable belt stanchions to be called by TSA officers at their podiums.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_19');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_19');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">19<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">19. <em>Id.<\/em><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_19').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_19', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Once at the podiums, travelers must show a form of identification and their airline tickets to the TSA officer before proceeding to the conveyor belt, where travelers place their belongings\u2014including their shoes\u2014and proceed to an x-ray scanner.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_20');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_20');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">20<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">20. <em>Id.<\/em><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_20').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_20', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> After successfully passing through these security procedures, travelers proceed to a boarding gate and board their flight.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_21');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_21');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">21<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">21. <em>Id.<\/em><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_21').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_21', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> However, some airports located near the U.S.-Mexico border are different from other airports around the country in that USBP officers are stationed at these TSA checkpoints.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_22');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_22');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">22<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">22. <em>See <\/em>Yardley, <em>supra <\/em>note 16 (\u201c[USBP] [a]gents are posted in the airport and bus station and along highways . . . .\u201d).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_22').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_22', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Officers position themselves between the TSA podiums and the conveyor belt, and they take advantage of the compulsory circumstances of the TSA checkpoint environment to conduct their own \u201crandom\u201d immigration investigatory stops on unsuspecting travelers.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_23');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_23');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">23<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">23. <em>See infra <\/em>Part III.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_23').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_23', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> With an upcoming surge in recruitment for USBP officers and a harsher enforcement of these immigration policies,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_24');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_297_1('footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_24');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">24<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">24. <em>See <\/em>Yee &amp; Nixon, <em>supra <\/em>note 13.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_24').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_297_1_24', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> potentially all airports in most major U.S. cities within the 100-mile border zone will have USBP officers stationed at their TSA pre-boarding screening checkpoints, who will be authorized to arbitrarily stop and harass millions under the pretext of border security.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This Note argues that USBP immigration investigatory stops conducted in TSA pre-boarding screening checkpoints at airports in the southern border are unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment and that the current standard for USBP to conduct an immigration investigatory stop is antiquated and violates the Equal Protection Clause. Part I briefly discusses the history of the USBP and its focus on Mexican and Hispanic immigrants. Part II examines law enforcement\u2019s application of the Fourth Amendment and the reasonable suspicion standard, focusing on its application in the context of immigration law enforcement and each of the different types of immigration investigatory stops delineated by the Supreme Court. Part III examines the legal standards sanctioning TSA pre-boarding screening checkpoints and describes how USBP details conduct immigration investigatory stops in these checkpoints. Part IV argues that the USBP\u2019s immigration investigatory stops at TSA pre-boarding screening checkpoints are unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment because of the compulsory conditions of the TSA checkpoint and the manner by which USBP officers conduct these stops. Finally, Part V argues that the Hispanic appearance classification in the current reasonable suspicion standard to stop suspected undocumented immigrants violates the Fourteenth Amendment\u2019s Equal Protection Clause because it is not narrowly tailored to further border security and reduce overall illegal immigration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>To read more, click here<\/em>: <a href=\"https:\/\/live-cornell-law-review.pantheonsite.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/Chapablanco-note-final.pdf\">Traveling While Hispanic&#8221;: Border Patrol Immigration Investigatory Stops at TSA Checkpoints and Hispanic Appearance<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_297_1();\">References<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_297_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_297_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_297_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">References<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">163 U.S. 537 (1896).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 559 (Harlan, J., dissenting) (emphasis added).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">347 U.S. 483, 495 (1954).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">422 U.S. 873 (1975).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 885\u201387.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Nicacio v. INS, 797 F.2d 700, 701 (9th Cir. 1985).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">The label of \u201cimmigration investigatory stops\u201d throughout the Note refers to those&nbsp;<em>Terry&nbsp;<\/em>investigatory stops conducted by USBP officers to question individuals about their immigration status.&nbsp;<em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 16 (1968).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">With respect to powers of the immigration officers and employees, 8 U.S.C. \u00a7 1357 (1994) provides: &#8220;a) Any officer or employee of the Service authorized under regulations prescribed by the Attorney General shall have power without warrant\u2014<br \/>(1) to interrogate any alien or person believed to be an alien as to his right to be or to remain in the United States; . . . (3) within a reasonable distance from any external boundary of the United States, to board and search for aliens any vessel within the territorial waters of the United States and any railway car, aircraft, conveyance or vehicle, and within a distance of twenty-five miles  from any such external boundary to have access to private lands, but not dwellings, for the purpose of patrolling the border to prevent illegal entry of aliens into the United States; [and]<br \/>(4) to make arrests for felonies which have been committed and which are cognizable under any law of the United States regulating the admission, exclusion, or expulsion of aliens.&#8221;  The Attorney General has authorized Border Patrol officers to act as Immigration officers. 8 C.F.R. \u00a7 103.1(i) (1974). The \u201creasonable distance\u201d mentioned in \u00a7 1357(a)(3) is 100 air miles. 8 C.F.R. \u00a7 287.1 (a)(2) (1999).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See Area Search Warrants in Border Zones: <\/em>Almeida-Sanchez <em>and <\/em>Camara, 84 YALE L.J. 355, 357\u201358 (1974).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>The Constitution in the 100-Mile Border Zone<\/em>, AM. CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/other\/constitution-100-mile-border-zone<\/span> [<a href=\"https:\/\/perma .cc\/74MP-ZAZ6\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma<\/span> .cc\/74MP-ZAZ6<\/a>] (last visited Sept. 20, 2019). Nine of the ten largest U.S. metropolitan areas fall within the 100-mile border zone: New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, Philadelphia, Phoenix, San Antonio, San Diego and San Jose. <em>Id.<\/em><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See <\/em>Wesley Lowery, <em>Federal Agents Ask Domestic Flight Passengers to Show IDs in Search for Immigrant Ordered Deported<\/em>, WASH. POST (Feb. 24, 2017), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/post-nation\/wp\/2017\/02\/23\/federalofficers-ask-domestic-flight-passengers-to-show-ids-in-search-for-undocumented-immigrant\/?utm_term=.3065ccffdc28<\/span> [<a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/8RNY-LM2D\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/8RNY-LM2D<\/span><\/a>].<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi\" ><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_12');\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12,<\/a> <a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_19\" class=\"footnote_backlink\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_19');\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>19,<\/a> <a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_20\" class=\"footnote_backlink\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_20');\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>20,<\/a> <a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_21\" class=\"footnote_backlink\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_21');\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>21<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.<\/em><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_13');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_13\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Exec. Order No. 13,767, 82 Fed. Reg. 8,793 (Jan. 25, 2017); Vivian Yee &amp; Ron Nixon,&nbsp;<em>To Detain More Immigrants, Trump Administration to Speed Border Hiring<\/em>, N.Y. TIMES&nbsp;(Apr. 12, 2017), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/04\/12\/us\/<\/span> trump-immigration-border-hiring.html [<a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/3D8Y-CEXA\"><span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/3D8Y-CEXA<\/span><\/a>].<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_14');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_14\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Trump Administration Immigration Policy Priorities<\/em>, OFFICE OF THE PRESS SECRETARY, THE WHITE HOUSE (Oct. 8, 2017), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.whitehouse.gov\/brief<\/span> ing-statements\/trump-administration-immigration-policy-priorities [<span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/per<\/span> ma.cc\/GR3D-ESSW].<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_15');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_15\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g.<\/em>, Alvaro Huerta, <em>The \u2018War on Immigrants\u2019: Racist Policies in the Trump Era<\/em>,HUFFINGTON POST (Aug. 7 2017), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/<\/span> entry\/the-war-on-immigrants-racist-policies-in-thetrump_us_5980bf68e4b0d187a596909b [<span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/8TUF-B9S8]<\/span> (arguing that the immigration policies of the Trump Administration have become highly \u201cracialized\u201d through the President\u2019s rhetoric of \u201canti-Mexicanism and Islamophobia\u201d); NANCY MORAWETZ, ANNA SCHOENFELDER &amp; NATASHA RIVERA SILBER, N.Y.U. L. IMMIGRANT RTS. CLINIC, UNCOVERING USBP: BONUS PROGRAMS FOR UNITED STATES BORDER PATROL AGENTS AND THE ARREST OF LAWFULLY PRESENT INDIVIDUALS 1 (2013) [hereinafter \u201cUNCOVERING USBP\u201d] (\u201cThose caught in USBP\u2019s dragnet include U.S. citizens, lawful permanent residents, tourists, student visa-holders and persons with proper authorization to work in the United States.\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_16');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_16\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g.<\/em>, Jinjoo Lee, <em>Cornell Graduate Students Arrested Near U.S.-Mexico Border<\/em>, CORNELL DAILY SUN (Mar. 27, 2013), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/cornellsun.com\/2013\/03\/27\/<\/span> cornell-graduate-students-arrested-near-u-s-mexico-border\/ [<span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/<\/span> BHV8-UKLJ] (describing how two Cornell graduate students were arrested after they refused to answer a USBP officer\u2019s questions at the TSA checkpoint about their citizenship status at a Texas airport); Jim Yardley, <em>Some Texans Say Border Patrol Singles Out Too Many Blameless Hispanics<\/em>, N.Y. TIMES (Jan. 26, 2000), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2000\/01\/26\/us\/some-texans-say-border-patrol-singles-out-too-many-blameless-hispanics.html?mcubz=3<\/span> [<span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/<\/span> KVA3-YXGG] (describing how USBP even stopped and refused to let Cameron County Judge Gilberto Hinojosa board a plane to Houston until he stated his citizenship).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_17');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_17\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See infra <\/em>Parts III and IV.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_18');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_18\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>18<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g.<\/em>, JBG TRAVELS, <em>3046 Going Through TSA Security Check Point<\/em>, YOUTUBE (Dec. 18, 2016), <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=t7fBqju2GJY<\/span> [<span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/MM27-TAWX]<\/span> (depicting the TSA security screening process at an airport in Milwaukee).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_22');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_22\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>22<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See <\/em>Yardley, <em>supra <\/em>note 16 (\u201c[USBP] [a]gents are posted in the airport and bus station and along highways . . . .\u201d).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_23');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_23\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>23<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See infra <\/em>Part III.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_297_1_24');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_297_1_24\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>24<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See <\/em>Yee &amp; Nixon, <em>supra <\/em>note 13.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_297_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_297_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_297_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_297_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_297_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_297_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_297_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_297_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_297_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_297_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_297_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_297_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_297_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_297_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>In 1896, Justice Harlan dissented against the \u201cseparate, but equal\u201d doctrine established by&nbsp;Plessy v. Ferguson,11. 163 U.S. 537 (1896).&nbsp;saying, [I]n view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, ruling class of citizens. There is no caste here. 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