{"id":630,"date":"2019-09-08T21:54:42","date_gmt":"2019-09-08T21:54:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/live-cornell-law-review.pantheonsite.io\/?p=630"},"modified":"2026-05-26T16:15:37","modified_gmt":"2026-05-26T16:15:37","slug":"the-thirteenth-amendment-in-legal-theory","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/2019\/09\/08\/the-thirteenth-amendment-in-legal-theory\/","title":{"rendered":"The Thirteenth Amendment in Legal Theory"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Introduction<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Unique among constitutional amendments, the Thirteenth Amendment has been eclipsed by its own success.  It gave rise directly to the Civil Rights Act of 1866,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">1<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">1. Act of April 9, 1866, \u00a7 1, 14 Stat. 27 (1866).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;which was enacted under Section 2 of the Amendment; and the rights conferred&nbsp;by the 1866 Act, in turn, served as the model for Section 1 of&nbsp;the Fourteenth Amendment.  Constitutional decisions&nbsp;have paid far more attention to the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment than to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Thirteenth Amendment, leading some scholars to conclude that it has been unjustly neglected.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">2<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">2. Jack M. Balkin &amp; Sanford Levinson,&nbsp;<em>The Dangerous Thirteenth Amendment<\/em>, 112 Colum. L. Rev. 1459, 1460&nbsp;(2012).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>. Judged by citation count, that conclusion&nbsp;cannot be&nbsp;doubted, but this metric for&nbsp;assessing the significance of a constitutional provision has little to be said for it.  By that measure, the provisions that have proved to be most effective\u2014because least disputed, like the allocation of two senators to every state\u2014would have very little&nbsp;significance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Thirteenth Amendment presents a number of paradoxes in assessing its effects. Ratified just after the&nbsp;Civil War&nbsp;ended,&nbsp;it&nbsp;signaled&nbsp;the&nbsp;beginning&nbsp;of&nbsp;Reconstruction,&nbsp;what Eric Foner has aptly characterized as \u201cAmerica\u2019s Unfinished Revolution.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">3<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">3. ERIC&nbsp;FONER, RECONSTRUCTION: AMERICA\u2019S&nbsp;UNFINISHED&nbsp;REVOLUTION&nbsp;1863\u2013 77&nbsp;(1988).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  In addition to serving as the direct doctrinal antecedent to the Fourteenth Amendment, the Thirteenth Amendment raised the fundamental question that has animated civil&nbsp;rights&nbsp;law&nbsp;ever&nbsp;since:&nbsp;once&nbsp;abolition&nbsp;took&nbsp;hold, what&nbsp;was&nbsp;the&nbsp;legal&nbsp;status&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;newly&nbsp;freed&nbsp;slaves?&nbsp;The 1866 Act answered that question in favor of citizenship, of \u201call persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power,\u201d who had the same rights as are \u201cenjoyed by white citizens.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">4<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">4. Act of April 9, 1866, \u00a7 1, 14 Stat. 27&nbsp;(1866).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>. These provisions were then incorporated in Section&nbsp;1&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Fourteenth&nbsp;Amendment.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">5<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">5. <em>See&nbsp;<\/em>John Harrison,&nbsp;<em>Reconstructing the Privileges or Immunities&nbsp;&nbsp;Clause<\/em>, 101 Yale&nbsp;L.J. 1385, 1410\u201351&nbsp;(1992).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;In&nbsp;our&nbsp;own&nbsp;time,&nbsp;the question of citizenship has become one of guaranteeing&nbsp;to&nbsp;previously&nbsp;disfavored&nbsp;groups&nbsp;all&nbsp;the&nbsp;rights&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;public&nbsp;sphere, whether involving government action or private action, that dominant&nbsp;groups&nbsp;have&nbsp;long&nbsp;enjoyed,&nbsp;including&nbsp;equal rights&nbsp;to&nbsp;housing, employment, and government&nbsp;benefits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Thirteenth Amendment has played an important&nbsp;role in filling out the dimensions of full citizenship since its ratification.&nbsp;Yet&nbsp;its&nbsp;reception&nbsp;in&nbsp;legal&nbsp;theory&nbsp;has&nbsp;been&nbsp;episodic and muted.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">6<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">6. Balkin &amp; Levinson,&nbsp;<em>supra&nbsp;<\/em>note 2, at&nbsp;1460.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  This Essay examines the presuppositions&nbsp;behind the Amendment\u2019s indifferent reception from three related perspectives:&nbsp;first,&nbsp;that&nbsp;the&nbsp;abolitionist&nbsp;principles&nbsp;embodied&nbsp;in the&nbsp;Amendment&nbsp;are&nbsp;too&nbsp;obvious;&nbsp;second,&nbsp;that the&nbsp;implications of these principles&nbsp;are&nbsp;too narrow; and third, that these features of the Amendment, as it has been interpreted, have resulted&nbsp;in&nbsp;scholarship&nbsp;that&nbsp;is&nbsp;too&nbsp;reactive\u2014too&nbsp;dependent&nbsp;on sporadic innovations&nbsp;under&nbsp;the&nbsp;Amendment.  The&nbsp;lesson&nbsp;from all&nbsp;three&nbsp;perspectives&nbsp;is&nbsp;the&nbsp;sobering&nbsp;one&nbsp;that&nbsp;legal theory&nbsp;has followed rather than led interpretation of the Thirteenth Amendment and that its contributions have been mainly to rationalize existing law rather than to change&nbsp;it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Too Obvious<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Emancipation became an axiom&nbsp;of&nbsp;the American legal order, but not a moment before its acceptance was settled by ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment.&nbsp;At that point, and probably earlier by operation of the Emancipation&nbsp;Proclamations and the liberation of slaves by the Union&nbsp;Army,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">7<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">7. MICHAEL VORENBERG, FINAL FREEDOM: THE CIVIL WAR, THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY, AND THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT 31\u201334 (2001).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;emancipation became an irreversible reality.&nbsp;The Thirteenth Amendment took&nbsp;<em>de facto&nbsp;<\/em>emancipation&nbsp;and&nbsp;made it&nbsp;<em>de jure&nbsp;<\/em>part of the Constitution.&nbsp;It codified what the outcome of the Civil War had made apparent: that slavery was dead and could not be revived.&nbsp;Attempts at revival after Reconstruction\u2014or \u201credemption\u201d&nbsp;as&nbsp;conservative southern&nbsp;politicians&nbsp;would&nbsp;later term it\u2014had to stop short of a formal return to slavery.  Reconstruction&nbsp;secured&nbsp;physical&nbsp;liberty&nbsp;for&nbsp;all&nbsp;even as&nbsp;it&nbsp;could not&nbsp;secure&nbsp;genuine&nbsp;equality&nbsp;for&nbsp;African&nbsp;Americans.&nbsp; To&nbsp;say&nbsp;that the&nbsp;abolition&nbsp;of&nbsp;slavery&nbsp;is&nbsp;now axiomatic&nbsp;when&nbsp;it&nbsp;was&nbsp;formerly a matter of intense and deadly controversy captures its two- faced&nbsp;role&nbsp;inAmerican&nbsp;history. &nbsp;It&nbsp;is&nbsp;fundamental&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;current constitutional order even as it nearly destroyed the prior constitutional&nbsp;order,&nbsp;requiring&nbsp;it&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;rebuilt&nbsp;on&nbsp;an&nbsp;abolitionist foundation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The ambivalence of law towards slavery dates back to classical&nbsp;times,&nbsp;when&nbsp;Roman&nbsp;jurists&nbsp;recognized it&nbsp;as&nbsp;the&nbsp;point of&nbsp;departure&nbsp;of&nbsp;natural&nbsp;law&nbsp;from&nbsp;the&nbsp;law&nbsp;of&nbsp;nations.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">8<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">8. BARRY&nbsp;NICHOLAS,&nbsp;AN&nbsp;INTRODUCTION&nbsp;TO&nbsp;ROMAN&nbsp;LAW&nbsp;55&nbsp;(1962).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>. According to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Institutes&nbsp;of&nbsp;Justinian,\u201c[s]lavery&nbsp;is&nbsp;an&nbsp;institution&nbsp;of&nbsp;the law of nations (<em>ius gentium<\/em>) by which, contrary to nature, a person&nbsp;issubjected&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;dominion&nbsp;of&nbsp;another.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">9<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">9. ALAN&nbsp;WATSON, ROMAN&nbsp;SLAVE&nbsp;LAW&nbsp;7&nbsp;(1987).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  It&nbsp;was&nbsp;widely regarded&nbsp;as&nbsp;necessary&nbsp;for&nbsp;civilization&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;ancient world,&nbsp;and so supported a complicated body of Roman law, but it was admitted&nbsp;to&nbsp;be&nbsp;fundamentally unjustifiable.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">10<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">10. DAVID&nbsp;BRION&nbsp;DAVIS,&nbsp;INHUMAN&nbsp;BONDAGE:&nbsp;THE&nbsp;RISE&nbsp;AND&nbsp;FALL&nbsp;OF&nbsp;SLAVERY&nbsp;IN THE&nbsp;NEW&nbsp;WORLD&nbsp;41\u201344&nbsp;(2006).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;The&nbsp;gap&nbsp;between the ubiquity of slavery and its horrifying inequity led to rationalizations based on the inherently defective nature of slaves, and even of the original sin of both slaves and masters.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">11<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">11. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 44,&nbsp;55\u201356.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This&nbsp;combination&nbsp;of&nbsp;ambivalence&nbsp;and&nbsp;rationalization carried over into the New World, augmented by persistent and virulent racism.&nbsp;Even the common law, which celebrated the freedom conferred upon slaves who set foot in England, could be adapted by way of the law of property to become part of the law of slavery in the antebellum United States.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">12<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">12. THOMAS&nbsp;D.&nbsp;MORRIS,&nbsp;SOUTHERN&nbsp;SLAVERY&nbsp;AND&nbsp;THE&nbsp;LAW,&nbsp;1619\u20131860,&nbsp;at&nbsp;56\u2013 57&nbsp;(1996).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>. The various&nbsp;and disparate sources drawn on to justify the American law of slavery look today less like a persuasive justification rather&nbsp;than&nbsp;a&nbsp;convoluted rationalization&nbsp;from&nbsp;a&nbsp;miscellany&nbsp;of&nbsp;available sources.&nbsp;The Thirteenth Amendment swept aside all these efforts to defend the indefensible, leaving to legal theory the simpler task of justifying abolition as a long overdue step that had to be reconciled with the original&nbsp;Constitution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The legal and constitutional theory of the time certainly&nbsp;regarded&nbsp;it&nbsp;as&nbsp;a&nbsp;fait&nbsp;accompli&nbsp;and&nbsp;little&nbsp;more.&nbsp;&nbsp;Thomas&nbsp;Cooley\u2019s&nbsp;post-war edition of Joseph Story\u2019s Commentaries on&nbsp;the Constitution devoted three pages to the Amendment.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">13<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">13. JOSEPH&nbsp;STORY, 2 COMMENTARIES ON THE&nbsp;CONSTITUTION OF THE&nbsp;UNITED&nbsp;STATES&nbsp;672\u201375 (Melville M. Bigelow, ed., 5th ed.&nbsp;1891).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;His discussion concluded on a decidedly optimistic note:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>The mark of degradation which slavery stamped upon the colored race, and which had been found alike prejudicial to those who imposed and to those who suffered it, has thus been removed, and the disturbance and danger to the body politic occasioned by its existence has ceased.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">14<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">14. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;673.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Cooley did little to remark upon the violent opposition&nbsp;to&nbsp;Reconstruction in the South, beyond recounting the terms of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and he did not anticipate the reaction that would set in throughout the South when Reconstruction&nbsp;ended.James&nbsp;Bradley&nbsp;Thayer\u2019s&nbsp;famous&nbsp;article on&nbsp;judicial&nbsp;review&nbsp;did&nbsp;not&nbsp;mention&nbsp;the&nbsp;Thirteenth&nbsp;Amendment at all and was focused more upon what the Constitution did not&nbsp;require&nbsp;than&nbsp;what&nbsp;it&nbsp;did.&nbsp;On&nbsp;his&nbsp;view,&nbsp;only&nbsp;clear&nbsp;violations of the Constitution, \u201coutside [the] border of reasonable legislative&nbsp;action,\u201d&nbsp;were&nbsp;subject&nbsp;to&nbsp;judicial&nbsp;review.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">15<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">15. James Bradley Thayer,&nbsp;<em>The Origin and Scope of&nbsp;the&nbsp;American Doctrine of Constitutional Law<\/em>, 7 HarV. L. Rev. 129, 148&nbsp;(1893).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The neglect of the Thirteenth Amendment in legal theory would persist until Jacobus tenBroek revived interest in the Reconstruction Amendments after World War II.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">16<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">16. JACOBUS&nbsp;TENBROEK, THE&nbsp;ANTI-SLAVERY&nbsp;&nbsp;ORIGINS&nbsp;&nbsp;OF&nbsp;&nbsp;THE&nbsp;&nbsp;FOURTEENTH&nbsp;AMENDMENT&nbsp;(1951).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>. His article,&nbsp;<em>Thirteenth Amendment&nbsp;to the&nbsp;Constitution of&nbsp;the&nbsp;United States: Consummation&nbsp;to&nbsp;Abolition&nbsp;and&nbsp;Key&nbsp;to theFourteenth Amendment<\/em>,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">17<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">17. Jacobus&nbsp;tenBroek,&nbsp;Thirteenth&nbsp;Amendment&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Constitution&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;United States: Consummation to Abolition and Key to the Fourteenth Amendment,&nbsp;39&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_17');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> took a&nbsp;broad view of the&nbsp;Amendment that pushed its meaning, and the power of Congress to enforce it, well beyond the abolition of slavery as a legal institution.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_18');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_18');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_18\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">18<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">18. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;200.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_18').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_18', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  He took full account of the intense debates over the Amendment, even in the Republican-dominated Congress in the final year&nbsp;&nbsp;of the Civil War, and he contrasted the broad and then narrow view of the Amendment taken by its opponents: in arguing against approval of the Amendment, they contended that it&nbsp;would radically alter political and social relations; but after ratification, they argued against enforcement legislation on the ground that the Amendment only granted physical liberty&nbsp;to&nbsp;the newly freed slaves.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_19');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_19');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_19\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">19<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">19. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;189<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_19').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_19', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  By the time tenBroek wrote, however, the Thirteenth Amendment had been part of the Constitution for&nbsp;over&nbsp;80&nbsp;years&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;Civil&nbsp;Rights&nbsp;Era&nbsp;was&nbsp;well&nbsp;under&nbsp;way.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Too Narrow<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">As tenBroek aptly summarized the prior decisions under the Thirteenth Amendment, \u201cit denounces slavery and involuntary servitude\u201d understood to \u201crefer to a condition of enforced&nbsp;compulsory&nbsp;service&nbsp;of&nbsp;one&nbsp;to&nbsp;another;\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_20');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_20');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_20\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">20<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">20. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;172.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_20').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_20', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> but&nbsp;it&nbsp;did&nbsp;not extend&nbsp;to&nbsp;\u201cthe&nbsp;badges&nbsp;and&nbsp;incidents\u201d&nbsp;of&nbsp;slavery&nbsp;understood&nbsp;in the broad sense of the racist practices and prejudices that accompanied and were reinforced by slavery.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_21');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_21');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_21\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">21<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">21. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;172\u201373.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_21').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_21', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  If the first, narrow view prevails, the Thirteenth Amendment accomplished its main purpose when slavery ceased to be a recognized institution in American law. Whether effective substitutes for slavery persisted, without the formal domination of one person by another, was a question&nbsp;beyond the&nbsp;scope&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Amendment.&nbsp;Its&nbsp;mission&nbsp;was&nbsp;accomplished&nbsp;as soon as slavery was disestablished. On the second, broader view, however, much remained to be done, as legislation to enforce&nbsp;the&nbsp;Amendmentrevealed.&nbsp;Both&nbsp;legislation&nbsp;to&nbsp;create&nbsp;the&nbsp;Freedmen\u2019s&nbsp;Bureau&nbsp;and&nbsp;to&nbsp;protect&nbsp;civil&nbsp;rights&nbsp;responded&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;compelling&nbsp;need&nbsp;to&nbsp;give&nbsp;thenewly&nbsp;freed&nbsp;slaves&nbsp;the&nbsp;status&nbsp;of&nbsp;free citizens.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_22');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_22');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_22\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">22<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">22. <em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Eric Schnapper,&nbsp;<em>Affirmative Action and the Legislative History of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Fourteenth Amendment<\/em>, 71 Va. L. Rev. 753, 763&nbsp;(1985).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_22').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_22', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Legal&nbsp;theory&nbsp;remained&nbsp;almost&nbsp;entirely&nbsp;silent&nbsp;on&nbsp;this&nbsp;choice until tenBroek wrote his article. The narrow view made&nbsp;the&nbsp;Thirteenth Amendment\u2019s meaning too obvious to warrant discussion,&nbsp;while&nbsp;the&nbsp;broad&nbsp;view&nbsp;made&nbsp;its&nbsp;meaning&nbsp;too&nbsp;difficult to discern. If the Amendment settled the bitter controversy over&nbsp;slavery&nbsp;by&nbsp;abolishing&nbsp;slavery&nbsp;as&nbsp;an&nbsp;institution,&nbsp;legal&nbsp;theory did not need to elaborate on the consequences of that momentous step. In the words of one reluctant supporter of the&nbsp;Amendment,&nbsp;\u201cin&nbsp;passing&nbsp;this&nbsp;amendmentwe&nbsp;do&nbsp;not&nbsp;confer upon&nbsp;the&nbsp;negro&nbsp;the&nbsp;right&nbsp;to&nbsp;vote.&nbsp;We&nbsp;give&nbsp;him&nbsp;no&nbsp;right&nbsp;except his&nbsp;freedom,&nbsp;and&nbsp;leave&nbsp;the&nbsp;rest&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;States.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_23');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_23');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_23\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">23<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">23. Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1465 (1864) (remarks of Sen. Henderson).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_23').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_23', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  As&nbsp;this&nbsp;remark implies,&nbsp;however,&nbsp;a&nbsp;broad&nbsp;view&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;amendment&nbsp;raises&nbsp;a&nbsp;host of questions about the consequences of abolition: Would it extend to equal civil and political rights? How would those rights be defined and enforced? Would private&nbsp;racial discrimination fall within the scope of enforcement&nbsp;legislation? Would state refusal to protect the newly freed slaves from violence and discrimination violate federal&nbsp;law?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The resources of Legal Realism, with its emphasis upon the&nbsp;social&nbsp;effects&nbsp;of&nbsp;legal&nbsp;rules&nbsp;and&nbsp;judicialdecisions,&nbsp;would&nbsp;be&nbsp;needed to give an informed answer to these questions, but&nbsp;its advent was decades after Reconstruction and the establishment of Jim Crow. And when Legal Realism eventually&nbsp;arrived,&nbsp;its&nbsp;focuswould&nbsp;be&nbsp;elsewhere,&nbsp;on&nbsp;a&nbsp;general theoretical critique of legal formalism as a closed system of legalreasoning.&nbsp;The&nbsp;realists&nbsp;targeted&nbsp;formalism&nbsp;as&nbsp;it&nbsp;pervaded private law subjects such as contracts and torts rather than public law subjects like civil rights. As noted earlier, when progressive&nbsp;legal&nbsp;theorists&nbsp;likeThayer&nbsp;discussed&nbsp;constitutional law,&nbsp;they&nbsp;were&nbsp;concerned&nbsp;to&nbsp;limit&nbsp;judicial&nbsp;review,&nbsp;not&nbsp;to&nbsp;expand it, let alone for the benefit of racial minorities. As Justice Holmes&nbsp;wrote,&nbsp;in&nbsp;his&nbsp;celebrated&nbsp;dissent&nbsp;in&nbsp;<em>Lochner&nbsp;v.&nbsp;New&nbsp;York<\/em>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<blockquote class=\"wp-block-quote is-layout-flow wp-block-quote-is-layout-flow\"><p>I&nbsp;think&nbsp;that&nbsp;the&nbsp;word&nbsp;\u2018liberty\u2019&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;Fourteenth&nbsp;Amendment&nbsp;is perverted when it is held to prevent the natural outcome of a dominant opinion, unless it can be said that a rational and fair man necessarily would admit that the statute proposed would infringe fundamental principles as they have been understood by the traditions of our people and our&nbsp;law.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_24');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_24');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_24\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">24<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">24. 198 U.S. 45, 76 (1905) (Holmes, J.,&nbsp;dissenting).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_24').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_24', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p><\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This limitation on judicial review allowed the courts to invalidate only the most blatant attempts to evade the Thirteenth&nbsp;Amendment,&nbsp;as&nbsp;tenBroek&nbsp;recounted&nbsp;in&nbsp;his&nbsp;article.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_25');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_25');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_25\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">25<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">25. tenBroek,&nbsp;<em>supra&nbsp;<\/em>note 17, at&nbsp;171\u201372.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_25').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_25', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  The nuanced approach to legal rules and their consequences advocated by the Legal Realists tended to increase doubts about the wisdom of striking down legislation rather than encouraging vigorous enforcement of the Constitution. Following&nbsp;Thayer&nbsp;andHolmes,&nbsp;those&nbsp;doubts&nbsp;were&nbsp;then&nbsp;resolved in&nbsp;favor&nbsp;of&nbsp;allowing&nbsp;legislation&nbsp;and&nbsp;other&nbsp;forms&nbsp;of&nbsp;state&nbsp;action tostand.&nbsp;With&nbsp;only&nbsp;rare&nbsp;exceptions,&nbsp;the&nbsp;traditional&nbsp;patterns&nbsp;of racial segregation and hierarchy that accompanied slavery received the benefit of the doubt in the late nineteenth and early twentieth&nbsp;century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Both innovative and established approaches to constitutional law at that time had little capacity to address&nbsp;the material conditions of Jim Crow, and in particular, how the cumulative effects of discrimination could amount to&nbsp;the effective equivalent of slavery. In the law developed under&nbsp;the Thirteenth Amendment, assessment of those effects fell under the question whether they amounted to \u201cbadges and incidents\u201d of slavery subject to the power of Congress to enforce&nbsp;the&nbsp;Amendment.&nbsp;On a broad view of the term, practices that did not involve all the features of involuntary servitude prohibited by Section 1 of the Amendment could still be prohibited by Congress&nbsp;as&nbsp;a&nbsp;\u201cbadge\u201d&nbsp;or&nbsp;\u201cincident\u201d&nbsp;of&nbsp;slaveryunder&nbsp;Section&nbsp;2. Voluntary servitude, prohibited by the Anti-Peonage Act of&nbsp;1867,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_26');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_26');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_26\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">26<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">26. Act of Mar. 2, 1867, 14 Stat. 546 (codified as amended at 19&nbsp;U.S.C. \u00a7 1581).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_26').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_26', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> fell under this heading. Yet after&nbsp;Reconstruction ended, Congress did not take a broad view of \u201cbadges and&nbsp;incidents\u201d of slavery and it failed to enact any new civil rights legislation&nbsp;that&nbsp;could extend the&nbsp;effective&nbsp;scope&nbsp;ofthe&nbsp;Thirteenth Amendment. Both judicial interpretation of the Amendment&nbsp;and&nbsp;the&nbsp;absence&nbsp;ofenforcement&nbsp;legislation effectively&nbsp;confined&nbsp;its&nbsp;scope,&nbsp;giving&nbsp;legal&nbsp;theory&nbsp;no&nbsp;innovations in legal doctrine that required innovations in legal reasoning. All this changed with the advent of the Civil Rights Era, which eventually resulted&nbsp;in&nbsp;expanded&nbsp;interpretation&nbsp;of the Amendment&nbsp;and&nbsp;which&nbsp;forced&nbsp;legal&nbsp;theorybelatedly&nbsp;to&nbsp;confront its&nbsp;implications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Too Reactive<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Over&nbsp;a&nbsp;decade&nbsp;after&nbsp;constitutional&nbsp;theory&nbsp;faced&nbsp;the&nbsp;task&nbsp;of justifying the radical re-interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment&nbsp;in&nbsp;<em>Brown&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Board&nbsp;of&nbsp;Education<\/em>,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_27');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_27');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_27\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">27<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">27. 347 U.S. 483&nbsp;(1954).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_27').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_27', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;it&nbsp;was&nbsp;faced&nbsp;with a similar need to justify an expanded interpretation of the Thirteenth Amendment. The decision in question,&nbsp;<em>Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.<\/em>,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_28');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_28');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_28\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">28<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">28. 392 U.S. 409, 413, 420\u201341&nbsp;(1968).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_28').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_28', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;offered a broad interpretation of the power of Congress to enforce the amendment and a broad interpretation&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;first&nbsp;statute,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Civil&nbsp;Rights&nbsp;Act&nbsp;of&nbsp;1866, enacted under the Amendment. The opinions in that case emphasized&nbsp;the&nbsp;legislative&nbsp;history&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Act,&nbsp;neglecting&nbsp;textual references&nbsp;in&nbsp;the&nbsp;statute&nbsp;itself&nbsp;to\u201ccustom.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_29');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_29');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_29\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">29<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">29. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;422\u201326.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_29').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_29', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;In&nbsp;the&nbsp;first&nbsp;article to&nbsp;analyze&nbsp;the&nbsp;decision,&nbsp;Gerhard&nbsp;Caspar&nbsp;would&nbsp;have&nbsp;shifted&nbsp;the&nbsp;focus of the analysis to that term, which presupposes that pervasive&nbsp;private&nbsp;discrimination&nbsp;can&nbsp;become&nbsp;the&nbsp;equivalent&nbsp;of state action.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_30');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_30');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_30\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">30<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">30. Gerhard&nbsp;Casper,&nbsp;Jones&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Mayer<em>:&nbsp;Clio,&nbsp;Bemused&nbsp;and&nbsp;Confused&nbsp;Muse<\/em>,&nbsp;1968 SUP. CT. REV. 89, 106\u201309, 117\u201319&nbsp;(1969).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_30').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_30', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  On this interpretation, the Act was&nbsp;continuous <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">with&nbsp;the&nbsp;prohibition&nbsp;against&nbsp;public&nbsp;discrimination&nbsp;established in&nbsp;<em>Brown&nbsp;<\/em>but went further to reach privateaction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">There followed a chorus of criticism and endorsement of&nbsp;<em>Jones v. Mayer<\/em>.&nbsp;Charles Fairman took the lead in denouncing the decision as unprincipled judicial activism in his volume on the history of the Supreme Court during Reconstruction.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_31');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_31');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_31\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">31<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">31. CHARLES&nbsp;FAIRMAN, 6 HISTORY OF THE&nbsp;SUPREME&nbsp;COURT&nbsp;OF THE&nbsp;UNITED&nbsp;STATES: RECONSTRUCTION AND&nbsp;REUNION, PART&nbsp;ONE&nbsp;1172\u20131204&nbsp;(1971).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_31').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_31', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;Others rose to its defense, particularly as the Supreme Court began to have doubts about the breadth of an interpretation of the 1866 Act that reached all forms of private&nbsp;&nbsp;discrimination in contracting and property.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_32');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_32');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_32\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">32<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">32. Robert&nbsp;Kaczorowski,&nbsp;The&nbsp;Enforcement&nbsp;Provisions&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Civil&nbsp;Rights&nbsp;Act&nbsp;of&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_32');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_32').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_32', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;That debate eventually was settled by Congress in the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which amended the statute to protect explicitly \u201cagainst impairment by nongovernmental discrimination.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_33');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_33');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_33\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">33<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">33. Pub. L. No. 102-166, 105 Stat. 1071 (1991), codified at 42 U.S.C. \u00a7 1981(c).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_33').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_33', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  That&nbsp;&nbsp;amendment&nbsp;&nbsp;to the statute, like&nbsp;<em>Jones v. Mayer&nbsp;<\/em>itself, clearly signaled that the&nbsp;path for effective enforcement of the Thirteenth Amendment went through&nbsp;Congress.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Subsequent scholarship, however, has not taken this hint.  Instead of looking at the breadth of the enforcement power under Section 2 of the Amendment, it has concentrated on Section 1, with consequences that have been, at best, hit or&nbsp;miss.  The&nbsp;Amendment&nbsp;has been held up as a basis for protecting rights as disparate as those concerned with abortion and with animal cruelty.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_34');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_34');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_34\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">34<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">34. Jamal Greene,&nbsp;<em>Thirteenth Amendment Optimism<\/em>, 112 Colum. L. Rev. 1733, 1733\u201334&nbsp;(2012).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_34').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_34', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  This scholarship takes as its model the course of decisions under Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment, resulting in the large body of doctrine developed under&nbsp;the Equal&nbsp;Protection&nbsp;and&nbsp;Due Process&nbsp;Clauses. Suggestions like the analogy between forced carriage of a pregnancy through birth and involuntary servitude might have some force, but they carry the Thirteenth Amendment very far from its historical origins.  It would be better to see how these analogies might be pursued in the political sphere and whether they could generate effective legislation, based on enforcement of the Amendment or the exercise of some other congressional power, to make progress towards equality.  The aim is not&nbsp;to&nbsp;maximize the visibility of the Thirteenth Amendment, let alone simply its self-enforcing provisions in Section 1, but to fulfill&nbsp;the program of freedom and equality that it stands for.  Reacting&nbsp;to&nbsp;continuing&nbsp;problems&nbsp;makes&nbsp;good&nbsp;sense.&nbsp;Reacting to purely doctrinal issues does&nbsp;not.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Several such continuing problems are apparent: the continued&nbsp;existence&nbsp;of&nbsp;slavery,&nbsp;particularly&nbsp;in&nbsp;theform&nbsp;of&nbsp;sex trafficking; the misuse of the criminal justice system against African Americans; and the mistreatment of migratory workers, particularly undocumented aliens. The Thirteenth Amendment serves as a timeless reminder of the incomplete project of achieving equal citizenship and it provides the means, mainly through its prohibition on private discrimination,&nbsp;of&nbsp;making&nbsp;progress&nbsp;towards&nbsp;that&nbsp;goal.&nbsp;It&nbsp;offers a distinctive contribution to the persistent problems at the intersection&nbsp;of&nbsp;freedom,&nbsp;race,&nbsp;and&nbsp;labor.&nbsp;It&nbsp;is&nbsp;worth identifying what the different features of that contribution are, now as much as in the aftermath of the Civil War.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">First, abolition in fact has to&nbsp;be&nbsp;distinguished from abolition in&nbsp;law. Slavery has been pushed out of&nbsp;the&nbsp;mainstream of economic life in this country, but it still hangs on at the margins. Isolated farming, forestry, and mining operations can be used to hide workers in indentured servitude from enforcement efforts and from the possibility of rescue or escape. Slavery also hides in plain sight among domestic workers, often undocumented aliens who fear disclosure of their situation to&nbsp;law enforcement agencies. In foreign countries, slavery has proven to be more durable and open, as&nbsp;harsh economic conditions force individuals and their families into servitude. These practices overseas carry forward into this country through various forms of trafficking, of which sex&nbsp;trafficking is the most virulent and resistant toelimination.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_35');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_35');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_35\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">35<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">35. KEVIN&nbsp;BALES, ENDING&nbsp;SLAVERY: HOW&nbsp;WE&nbsp;FREE&nbsp;TODAY\u2019S&nbsp;SLAVES&nbsp;5\u201320&nbsp;(2007).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_35').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_35', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The reach of the Thirteenth Amendment makes it the most likely source of federal law addressed to these residual forms of slavery. The Fourteenth Amendment prohibits only state action in violation of individual rights and the Commerce Clause still retains some limits, however haphazard, requiring an effect on economic activity.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_36');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_36');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_36\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">36<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">36. <em>See, e.g.<\/em>, United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598, 619\u201327 (2000) (invalidating the Violence Against Women&nbsp;Act).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_36').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_36', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  The Thirteenth Amendment extends to all forms of involuntary servitude, in Section 1, and by&nbsp;legislation&nbsp;under&nbsp;Section&nbsp;2,&nbsp;to&nbsp;any&nbsp;form&nbsp;of&nbsp;racial discrimination&nbsp;that&nbsp;constitutes one&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;\u201cbadges&nbsp;and incidents of slavery.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_37');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_37');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_37\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">37<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">37. Jones v. Mayer Co., 392 U.S. 362, 441&nbsp;(1968).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_37').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_37', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  Hence, Congress&nbsp;&nbsp;has&nbsp;&nbsp;enacted legislation&nbsp;like&nbsp;theVictims&nbsp;of&nbsp;Trafficking&nbsp;and&nbsp;Violence Protection Act of 2000.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_38');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_38');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_38\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">38<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">38. Pub. L. No. 106-386, 114 Stat. 1464 (with amending and reauthorizing legislation in 2003, 2005, 2008,&nbsp;2013).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_38').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_38', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Of course, enacting prohibitions only constitutes&nbsp;the&nbsp;first&nbsp;step&nbsp;towards&nbsp;effective&nbsp;enforcement.  But&nbsp;here, too,&nbsp;the&nbsp;lessons&nbsp;from&nbsp;the&nbsp;Thirteenth&nbsp;Amendment&nbsp;reveal&nbsp;a&nbsp;variety&nbsp;of&nbsp;means,&nbsp;from criminal prosecutions, to private civil actions,&nbsp;to&nbsp;broad&nbsp;remedial&nbsp;programs&nbsp;&nbsp;like&nbsp;&nbsp;those&nbsp;&nbsp;undertaken&nbsp;&nbsp;by&nbsp;&nbsp;the&nbsp;&nbsp;Freedmen\u2019s&nbsp;Bureau.  The&nbsp;lesson&nbsp;is&nbsp;not&nbsp;that&nbsp;one&nbsp;size&nbsp;fits&nbsp;all,&nbsp;but&nbsp;the&nbsp;opposite:&nbsp;that&nbsp;needed&nbsp;remedies&nbsp;can&nbsp;be&nbsp;tailored&nbsp;to existing&nbsp;wrongs.  Working&nbsp;to&nbsp;assist&nbsp;the&nbsp;victims&nbsp;of&nbsp;modern&nbsp;servitude&nbsp;and&nbsp;trafficking&nbsp;presents&nbsp;challenges&nbsp;of&nbsp;its own,&nbsp;as&nbsp;these&nbsp;individuals&nbsp;usually&nbsp;are&nbsp;in&nbsp;no&nbsp;position&nbsp;to&nbsp;assert&nbsp;their&nbsp;own&nbsp;rights.&nbsp;Deploying&nbsp;the&nbsp;resources&nbsp;to discover&nbsp;their&nbsp;plight&nbsp;and&nbsp;to&nbsp;alleviate&nbsp;it&nbsp;requires&nbsp;the same affirmative efforts that were&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;necessary in&nbsp;Reconstruction and&nbsp;all too&nbsp;frequently were&nbsp;lacking.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The&nbsp;lessons&nbsp;ofthe&nbsp;early&nbsp;years&nbsp;after&nbsp;abolition&nbsp;still&nbsp;have&nbsp;value&nbsp;today.&nbsp;The&nbsp;same&nbsp;could&nbsp;be&nbsp;said&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;second&nbsp;issue&nbsp;of salience&nbsp;today: the prevalence of police violence&nbsp;against&nbsp;African&nbsp;Americans.  It resembles, even if on a smaller&nbsp;scale,&nbsp;the&nbsp;campaign&nbsp;of&nbsp;intimidation&nbsp;and&nbsp;terrorism&nbsp;against&nbsp;the&nbsp;newly&nbsp;freed&nbsp;slaves and their supporters during and&nbsp;after&nbsp;Reconstruction.&nbsp; So&nbsp;far,&nbsp;the&nbsp;principal&nbsp;remedy&nbsp;against&nbsp;police&nbsp;violence,&nbsp;from&nbsp;the&nbsp;beating&nbsp;ofRodney&nbsp;King&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;present&nbsp;day,&nbsp;has&nbsp;been&nbsp;the&nbsp;nearly&nbsp;ubiquitous&nbsp;presence&nbsp;of&nbsp;video&nbsp;cameras.&nbsp;Filmed&nbsp;police violence&nbsp;constitutes compelling&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;evidence&nbsp;to support criminal&nbsp;prosecutions&nbsp;and civil&nbsp;lawsuits,&nbsp;but&nbsp;it&nbsp;does&nbsp;not,&nbsp;of&nbsp;course,&nbsp;guarantee conviction or a judgment for&nbsp;damages.  Litigation&nbsp;has offered, at best, sporadic remedies.  It has&nbsp;called&nbsp;attention&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;problem&nbsp;but&nbsp;not&nbsp;provided&nbsp;any consistent solution,&nbsp;either&nbsp;by&nbsp;way&nbsp;of&nbsp;compensation&nbsp;for&nbsp;past&nbsp;wrongs&nbsp;or&nbsp;deterrence&nbsp;of&nbsp;future misconduct.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Some of the blame can be assigned to lenient standards applied in excessive force cases, allowing police to use&nbsp;any&nbsp;degree of force assessed \u201cin favor of deference to the judgment of&nbsp;reasonable&nbsp;officers&nbsp;onthe&nbsp;scene,\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_39');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_39');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_39\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">39<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">39. Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 204&nbsp;(2001).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_39').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_39', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> and&nbsp;additionally&nbsp;allowing immunity to officers \u201cfor reasonable mistakes as to the legality of their actions.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_40');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_40');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_40\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">40<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">40. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;206.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_40').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_40', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>. The same network of lenient substantive standards and broad immunity applies to actions against government officials under the Civil Rights Act of 1866.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_41');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_41');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_41\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">41<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">41. <em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Jett v. Dallas Indep. Sch. Dist., 491 U.S. 701, 731&nbsp;(1989<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_41').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_41', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>). Yet the potential for legislation under Section 2 of the Thirteenth Amendment to address racial discrimination in policing&nbsp;offers the opportunity for a fresh start in examining the existing regime of liability and immunity for civil rights violations.&nbsp;A steady stream of recent scholarship criticizes the scope&nbsp;and&nbsp;justification of qualified immunity in civil rights actions<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_42');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_42');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_42\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">42<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">42. See&nbsp;John C. Jeffries, Jr.,&nbsp;What\u2019s Wrong With Qualified Immunity?, 62&nbsp;Fla. L. Rev. 851, 854\u201366 (2010); William Baude,&nbsp;Is Qualified Immunity Unlawful?, 106 Calif. L. Rev. 45,&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_42');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_42').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_42', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;and the immunity has never been recognized in lawsuits against private defendants under the Civil Rights Act of 1866.&nbsp;The&nbsp;stark&nbsp;contrast&nbsp;between&nbsp;suits&nbsp;against&nbsp;public&nbsp;andprivate defendants, respectively with and without immunity, provides a reason to re-examine the existing hurdles to recovery from public officials for civil rights&nbsp;violations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A further contrast has to do with the very existence of actions against private defendants in legislation under the Thirteenth&nbsp;Amendment.&nbsp;From&nbsp;the&nbsp;very&nbsp;beginning,&nbsp;it&nbsp;has&nbsp;been accepted,&nbsp;virtually&nbsp;alone&nbsp;among constitutional&nbsp;provisions,&nbsp;as&nbsp;a restriction on private conduct.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_43');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_43');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_43\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">43<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">43. The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3, 20, 23&nbsp;(1883).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_43').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_43', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  It prohibits both private servitude and legally authorized slavery. So, too, legislation under Section 2 of the Amendment can also reach private action.Legislation&nbsp;with&nbsp;this&nbsp;scope&nbsp;dispenses&nbsp;with&nbsp;the&nbsp;need&nbsp;for the plaintiff to prove \u201cstate action,\u201d with immediate implications for cases, like the killing of Trayvon Martin, involving private security guards. This extension to private action&nbsp;might&nbsp;seem&nbsp;minor,&nbsp;given&nbsp;the&nbsp;pervasive&nbsp;presence&nbsp;of&nbsp;state police&nbsp;in&nbsp;modern&nbsp;society,&nbsp;but&nbsp;the&nbsp;useof&nbsp;public&nbsp;intimidation&nbsp;and violence regularly depends upon private support. The experience&nbsp;inReconstruction&nbsp;again&nbsp;underlines&nbsp;this&nbsp;point&nbsp;from an historical perspective. Rampant private violence tolerated by the public authorities effectively put an end to efforts to reconstruct southern state governments.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_44');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_44');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_44\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">44<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">44. W.E.B. DU&nbsp;BOIS, BLACK&nbsp;RECONSTRUCTION IN&nbsp;AMERICA&nbsp;549\u201365&nbsp;(1934).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_44').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_44', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The third issue of pressing current concern represents an ironic variation on the experience of American slavery. Migrants&nbsp;come&nbsp;to&nbsp;this&nbsp;country&nbsp;willingly,&nbsp;often&nbsp;at&nbsp;great&nbsp;personal risk, in search of employment and other economic opportunities. Slaves came here as the coerced cargo of the slave trade. Yet both current migrants and historical slaves share the experience of working under coercion: many ofthe former under threat of deportation, and all of the latter under violent control by their masters. Moreover, many undocumented immigrants share ethnic, racial, and religious identification&nbsp;as&nbsp;minorities, as&nbsp;the&nbsp;constitutional&nbsp;challenges&nbsp;to President Trump\u2019s travel ban made clear.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_45');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_45');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_45\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">45<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">45. Trump v. Hawaii, 138 S. Ct. 2392, 2415\u201316&nbsp;(2018).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_45').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_45', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A longstanding difficulty in immigration law involves reconciliation of controls over access to employment\u2014the possession of a \u201cgreen card\u201d\u2014and employer intimidation of undocumented aliens who work illegally but then, in turn,&nbsp;are&nbsp;subject to illegal conditions of employment.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_46');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_46');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_46\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">46<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">46. T. ALEXANDER&nbsp;ALEINIKOFF ET AL., IMMIGRATION AND&nbsp;CITIZENSHIP: PROCESS AND&nbsp;POLICY&nbsp;1122\u201333 (8th ed.&nbsp;2016).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_46').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_46', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;The economics of such arrangement strongly favor&nbsp;employer attempts to employ a cheap and easily controlled work force.Deterrence through&nbsp;enforcement of legal&nbsp;prohibitions depends upon&nbsp;individuals willing to come forward to complain and testify, which&nbsp;is&nbsp;exactly what aggressive enforcement&nbsp;of&nbsp;the immigration&nbsp;laws discourage.&nbsp;The&nbsp;end&nbsp;result&nbsp;bears&nbsp;a disturbing similarity to the criminal suretyship laws that were&nbsp;used to enforce labor contracts in the early twentieth century.&nbsp;Upon conviction, workers could then be subject to involuntary servitude&nbsp;under&nbsp;the&nbsp;exception&nbsp;for&nbsp;convict&nbsp;labor&nbsp;in&nbsp;the Thirteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court struck&nbsp;down these laws as a transparent evasion of the free labor regime established by theAmendment.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_47');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_47');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_47\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">47<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">47. Bailey v. Alabama, 219 U.S. 219, 227\u201328&nbsp;(1911).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_47').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_47', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Labor under threat of deportation has all the essential features of private peonage, which has long been defined as \u201ccompulsory service to secure the payment of a debt.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_48');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_48');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_48\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">48<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">48. Clyatt v. United States, 197 U.S. 207, 216&nbsp;(1905).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_48').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_48', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>. An employer seeks to enforce a contract for labor, often under&nbsp;illegal terms and conditions of employment, by threatening to invoke the immigration laws against the employee. To see the problem in this light greatly strengthens the case for sanctions against the employer. A Thirteenth Amendment approach yields&nbsp;new&nbsp;support&nbsp;for&nbsp;reformthrough&nbsp;legislation&nbsp;and litigation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Appealing to the Thirteenth Amendment offers no panacea for current or future problems of race, labor, and coercion.  In the terms of the Amendment itself, the judicially enforceable provisions of Section 1 can only go so far without legislative support by enactments under Section 2.  And even&nbsp;then, enforcement efforts must be&nbsp;deployed through public and private litigation, usually on behalf of individuals who are poorly situated to protect themselves.  The effort nevertheless must&nbsp;be&nbsp;made. Over 150&nbsp;years&nbsp;ago,&nbsp;the&nbsp;Thirteenth Amendment raised the question of what constitutes equality&nbsp;among citizens and, in the words of the current version of the&nbsp;Civil Rights Act of 1866, what constitutes equality among \u201call persons within the jurisdiction of the United States.\u201d<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_49');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_630_1('footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_49');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_49\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">49<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">49. 42 U.S.C. \u00a7&nbsp;1981(a).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_49').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_630_1_49', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>  It has yet to receive a satisfactory&nbsp;answer.<\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_630_1();\">References<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_630_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_630_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_630_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">References<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Act of April 9, 1866, \u00a7 1, 14 Stat. 27 (1866).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jack M. Balkin &amp; Sanford Levinson,&nbsp;<em>The Dangerous Thirteenth Amendment<\/em>, 112 Colum. L. Rev. 1459, 1460&nbsp;(2012).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">ERIC&nbsp;FONER, RECONSTRUCTION: AMERICA\u2019S&nbsp;UNFINISHED&nbsp;REVOLUTION&nbsp;1863\u2013 77&nbsp;(1988).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Act of April 9, 1866, \u00a7 1, 14 Stat. 27&nbsp;(1866).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See&nbsp;<\/em>John Harrison,&nbsp;<em>Reconstructing the Privileges or Immunities&nbsp;&nbsp;Clause<\/em>, 101 Yale&nbsp;L.J. 1385, 1410\u201351&nbsp;(1992).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Balkin &amp; Levinson,&nbsp;<em>supra&nbsp;<\/em>note 2, at&nbsp;1460.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">MICHAEL VORENBERG, FINAL FREEDOM: THE CIVIL WAR, THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY, AND THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT 31\u201334 (2001).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">BARRY&nbsp;NICHOLAS,&nbsp;AN&nbsp;INTRODUCTION&nbsp;TO&nbsp;ROMAN&nbsp;LAW&nbsp;55&nbsp;(1962).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">ALAN&nbsp;WATSON, ROMAN&nbsp;SLAVE&nbsp;LAW&nbsp;7&nbsp;(1987).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">DAVID&nbsp;BRION&nbsp;DAVIS,&nbsp;INHUMAN&nbsp;BONDAGE:&nbsp;THE&nbsp;RISE&nbsp;AND&nbsp;FALL&nbsp;OF&nbsp;SLAVERY&nbsp;IN THE&nbsp;NEW&nbsp;WORLD&nbsp;41\u201344&nbsp;(2006).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 44,&nbsp;55\u201356.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_12');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">THOMAS&nbsp;D.&nbsp;MORRIS,&nbsp;SOUTHERN&nbsp;SLAVERY&nbsp;AND&nbsp;THE&nbsp;LAW,&nbsp;1619\u20131860,&nbsp;at&nbsp;56\u2013 57&nbsp;(1996).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_13');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_13\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">JOSEPH&nbsp;STORY, 2 COMMENTARIES ON THE&nbsp;CONSTITUTION OF THE&nbsp;UNITED&nbsp;STATES&nbsp;672\u201375 (Melville M. Bigelow, ed., 5th ed.&nbsp;1891).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_14');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_14\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;673.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_15');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_15\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">James Bradley Thayer,&nbsp;<em>The Origin and Scope of&nbsp;the&nbsp;American Doctrine of Constitutional Law<\/em>, 7 HarV. L. Rev. 129, 148&nbsp;(1893).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_16');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_16\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">JACOBUS&nbsp;TENBROEK, THE&nbsp;ANTI-SLAVERY&nbsp;&nbsp;ORIGINS&nbsp;&nbsp;OF&nbsp;&nbsp;THE&nbsp;&nbsp;FOURTEENTH&nbsp;AMENDMENT&nbsp;(1951).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_17');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_17\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jacobus&nbsp;tenBroek,&nbsp;<em>Thirteenth&nbsp;Amendment&nbsp;to&nbsp;the&nbsp;Constitution&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;United States: Consummation to Abolition and Key to the Fourteenth Amendment,&nbsp;<\/em>39 CALIF. L. REV. 171&nbsp;(1951).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_18');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_18\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>18<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;200.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_19');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_19\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>19<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;189<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_20');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_20\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>20<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;172.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_21');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_21\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>21<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;172\u201373.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_22');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_22\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>22<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Eric Schnapper,&nbsp;<em>Affirmative Action and the Legislative History of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Fourteenth Amendment<\/em>, 71 Va. L. Rev. 753, 763&nbsp;(1985).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_23');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_23\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>23<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Cong. Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess. 1465 (1864) (remarks of Sen. Henderson).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_24');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_24\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>24<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">198 U.S. 45, 76 (1905) (Holmes, J.,&nbsp;dissenting).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_25');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_25\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>25<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">tenBroek,&nbsp;<em>supra&nbsp;<\/em>note 17, at&nbsp;171\u201372.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_26');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_26\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>26<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Act of Mar. 2, 1867, 14 Stat. 546 (codified as amended at 19&nbsp;U.S.C. \u00a7 1581).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_27');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_27\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>27<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">347 U.S. 483&nbsp;(1954).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_28');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_28\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>28<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">392 U.S. 409, 413, 420\u201341&nbsp;(1968).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_29');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_29\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>29<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;422\u201326.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_30');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_30\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>30<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Gerhard&nbsp;Casper,&nbsp;Jones&nbsp;v.&nbsp;Mayer<em>:&nbsp;Clio,&nbsp;Bemused&nbsp;and&nbsp;Confused&nbsp;Muse<\/em>,&nbsp;1968 SUP. CT. REV. 89, 106\u201309, 117\u201319&nbsp;(1969).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_31');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_31\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>31<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">CHARLES&nbsp;FAIRMAN, 6 HISTORY OF THE&nbsp;SUPREME&nbsp;COURT&nbsp;OF THE&nbsp;UNITED&nbsp;STATES: RECONSTRUCTION AND&nbsp;REUNION, PART&nbsp;ONE&nbsp;1172\u20131204&nbsp;(1971).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_32');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_32\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>32<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Robert&nbsp;Kaczorowski,&nbsp;<em>The&nbsp;Enforcement&nbsp;Provisions&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;Civil&nbsp;Rights&nbsp;Act&nbsp;of 1866:&nbsp;A&nbsp;Legislative&nbsp;History&nbsp;in&nbsp;Light&nbsp;of&nbsp;<\/em>Runyon&nbsp;v.&nbsp;McCrary,&nbsp;98&nbsp;YALE&nbsp;L.J.&nbsp;565,&nbsp;565\u2013 67&nbsp;(1989).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_33');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_33\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>33<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Pub. L. No. 102-166, 105 Stat. 1071 (1991), codified at 42 U.S.C. \u00a7 1981(c).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_34');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_34\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>34<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jamal Greene,&nbsp;<em>Thirteenth Amendment Optimism<\/em>, 112 Colum. L. Rev. 1733, 1733\u201334&nbsp;(2012).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_35');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_35\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>35<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">KEVIN&nbsp;BALES, ENDING&nbsp;SLAVERY: HOW&nbsp;WE&nbsp;FREE&nbsp;TODAY\u2019S&nbsp;SLAVES&nbsp;5\u201320&nbsp;(2007).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_36');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_36\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>36<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g.<\/em>, United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598, 619\u201327 (2000) (invalidating the Violence Against Women&nbsp;Act).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_37');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_37\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>37<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jones v. Mayer Co., 392 U.S. 362, 441&nbsp;(1968).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_38');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_38\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>38<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Pub. L. No. 106-386, 114 Stat. 1464 (with amending and reauthorizing legislation in 2003, 2005, 2008,&nbsp;2013).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_39');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_39\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>39<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 204&nbsp;(2001).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_40');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_40\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>40<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at&nbsp;206.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_41');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_41\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>41<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See&nbsp;<\/em>Jett v. Dallas Indep. Sch. Dist., 491 U.S. 701, 731&nbsp;(1989<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_42');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_42\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>42<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See&nbsp;<\/em>John C. Jeffries, Jr.,&nbsp;<em>What\u2019s Wrong With Qualified Immunity?<\/em>, 62&nbsp;Fla. L. Rev. 851, 854\u201366 (2010); William Baude,&nbsp;<em>Is Qualified Immunity Unlawful?<\/em>, 106 Calif. L. Rev. 45, 55\u201360, 63\u201369, 72\u201377 (2018).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_43');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_43\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>43<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3, 20, 23&nbsp;(1883).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_44');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_44\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>44<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">W.E.B. DU&nbsp;BOIS, BLACK&nbsp;RECONSTRUCTION IN&nbsp;AMERICA&nbsp;549\u201365&nbsp;(1934).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_45');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_45\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>45<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Trump v. Hawaii, 138 S. Ct. 2392, 2415\u201316&nbsp;(2018).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_46');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_46\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>46<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">T. ALEXANDER&nbsp;ALEINIKOFF ET AL., IMMIGRATION AND&nbsp;CITIZENSHIP: PROCESS AND&nbsp;POLICY&nbsp;1122\u201333 (8th ed.&nbsp;2016).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_47');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_47\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>47<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Bailey v. Alabama, 219 U.S. 219, 227\u201328&nbsp;(1911).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_48');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_48\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>48<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Clyatt v. United States, 197 U.S. 207, 216&nbsp;(1905).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_630_1_49');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_630_1_49\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>49<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">42 U.S.C. \u00a7&nbsp;1981(a).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_630_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_630_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_630_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_630_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_630_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_630_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_630_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_630_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_630_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_630_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_630_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_630_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_630_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_630_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Introduction Unique among constitutional amendments, the Thirteenth Amendment has been eclipsed by its own success. It gave rise directly to the Civil Rights Act of 1866,11. Act of April 9, 1866, \u00a7 1, 14 Stat. 27 (1866).&nbsp;which was enacted under Section 2 of the Amendment; and the rights conferred&nbsp;by the 1866 Act, in turn, served&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[26,15,13],"tags":[116,123,186,277,289,384,482,605,642],"class_list":["post-630","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-essay","category-online-volume-104","category-archives","tag-african-americans","tag-american-history","tag-civil-rights-act-of-1866","tag-emancipation","tag-equal-protection","tag-inequality","tag-natural-law","tag-slavery","tag-thirteenth-amendment"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/630","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=630"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/630\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4653,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/630\/revisions\/4653"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=630"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=630"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=630"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}