{"id":744,"date":"2020-05-10T01:33:12","date_gmt":"2020-05-10T01:33:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/live-cornell-law-review.pantheonsite.io\/?p=744"},"modified":"2025-03-10T13:58:21","modified_gmt":"2025-03-10T13:58:21","slug":"greatly-exaggerating-dualisms-death-neuroscience-and-u-s-law","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/2020\/05\/10\/greatly-exaggerating-dualisms-death-neuroscience-and-u-s-law\/","title":{"rendered":"Greatly Exaggerating Dualism\u2019s Death: Neuroscience and U.S. Law"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>In&nbsp;<em>Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities<\/em>,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">1<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">1. Tex. Dep\u2019t of Hous. &amp; Cmty. Affairs v. Inclusive Cmtys. Project, Inc., 135 S. Ct. 2507 (2015).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;a case that considered durative confounding of the Fair Housing Act,<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">2<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">2. Fair Housing Act, 42 U.S.C. 3601 (1968).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;the United States Supreme Court held that even in the absence of discernible discriminatory intent, disparate impact produced by policy or practice may warrant remedy.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">3<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">3. 135 S. Ct. at 2516\u201326.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;Writing for a 5-4 majority, Justice Anthony Kennedy referenced&nbsp;\u201cunconscious prejudices\u201d&nbsp;and&nbsp;\u201cdisguised animus,\u201d&nbsp;pointing to a demarcation between mentation and action, concluding that the former is often inscrutable\u2014to the subject and to external evaluators alike.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">4<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">4. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 2522.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Less than a year following&nbsp;<em>Inclusive Communities<\/em>, researchers showed that it is possible to&nbsp;\u201cread\u201d&nbsp;thoughts based on neural activity alone.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">5<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">5. Jesse Rissman et al., <em>Decoding fMRI Signatures of Real-world<\/em> <em>Autobiographical Memory Retrieval<\/em>, 28 J. COGNITIVE&nbsp;NEUROSCIENCE&nbsp;604, 604 (2016).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;Looking at brain scans, the researchers were able to determine\u2014with over 90% accuracy\u2014whether participants were seeing a presently viewed face for the first time, a matter of much import for criminal identifications.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">6<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">6. <em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 605.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;Slight experimental progress would entail impingement on concerns intimate with&nbsp;<em>Inclusive<\/em> <em>Communities<\/em>: if there is a question of discriminatory intent, don\u2019t look to disparate impact, a test that is both over-inclusive (non-discriminatory policies and practices, by statistical variance alone, will occasionally have disparate impact) and under-inclusive (many discriminatory actors may act ineffectually). Look instead to neural activity, where proof of intent, and not just evidence, is located. Mind and body, the theory goes, are one.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>U.S. courts have long cordoned off mind from body. In criminal law, most convictions require both&nbsp;<em>actus reus&nbsp;<\/em>(literally,&nbsp;\u201cguilty act\u201d) and&nbsp;<em>mens rea&nbsp;<\/em>(\u201cguilty mind\u201d). Similar distinctions have been made in rulings concerning compulsion and in the realm of tortious harms. The idea undergirding such distinctions arguably is one of mind-body dualism: that the mental and the physical, while equally real, are not able to be assimilated.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">7<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">7. <em>See generally&nbsp;<\/em>Dov Fox &amp; Alex Stein,&nbsp;<em>Dualism and Doctrine<\/em>, 90 IND. L.J. 975 (2015) (providing an overview of mind-body dualism in U.S. law).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;In other words, our thoughts are rather different than the world we see and touch, and it is unclear whether our thoughts are\u2014or even can be\u2014part of that physical world. Indeed, dualism in U.S. law is as old as the U.S. legal system itself.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">8<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">8. <em>Id.<\/em><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Recent advances in neuroscience have influenced thinking on dualism and are precipitating changes in legal scholarship and jurisprudence.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">9<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">9. Martha J. Farah,<em>Neuroethics: The Practical and the Philosophical<\/em>, 9 <span class=\"smallcaps\">TRENDS IN COGNITIVE SCI.<\/span> 34, 38\u201339 (2005).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;It has been argued that the distinction between mind and body is fallacious<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">10<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">10. <em>See id.<\/em><\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;and that dualist notions in the law are obsolete.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">11<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">11. Fox &amp; Stein,&nbsp;<em>supra&nbsp;<\/em>note 7, at 975.<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>&nbsp;In addition, these advances in neuroscience have led to concerns that we are at grave risk of privacy invasions and other rights violations.<sup class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_744_1('footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">12<\/sup><\/a><cite class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><span class=\"footnote-inner\">12. <em>See, e.g.<\/em>, Nita A. Farahany,&nbsp;<em>Incriminating Thoughts<\/em>, 64 STAN. L. REV. 351, 353 (2012).<\/span><\/cite><\/sup><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_744_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In Part I, this Essay examines dualism and its philosophical meaning. Part II extends the discussion to dualism as glimpsed in U.S. jurisprudence. Part III discusses advances in neuroscience and what they mean for U.S. law. In particular, the ramifications for dualism in the law and for matters of privacy are discussed. Part IV explicates philosophical reasons for continuing the dualism legal doctrine. In Part V, it is argued that both the dualist landscape and neuroscientific advances have been poorly understood. Brain scans do not yield proof but rather new forms of evidence. As a result, the gains from neuroscience are less significant than what has been widely surmised. Equally important, the potential for misuse of neuroscientific technology is less threatening than what has been widely becried. The Essay concludes with implications for U.S. law in the near future.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>To read more, click <a href=\"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2020\/07\/Avery-online-essay-final-version-6-9-20.pdf\" data-type=\"link\" data-id=\"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2020\/07\/Avery-online-essay-final-version-6-9-20.pdf\">here<\/a><\/em>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_744_1();\">References<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_744_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_744_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_744_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">References<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Tex. Dep\u2019t of Hous. &amp; Cmty. Affairs v. Inclusive Cmtys. Project, Inc., 135 S. Ct. 2507 (2015).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fair Housing Act, 42 U.S.C. 3601 (1968).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">135 S. Ct. at 2516\u201326.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 2522.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jesse Rissman et al., <em>Decoding fMRI Signatures of Real-world<\/em> <em>Autobiographical Memory Retrieval<\/em>, 28 J. COGNITIVE&nbsp;NEUROSCIENCE&nbsp;604, 604 (2016).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.&nbsp;<\/em>at 605.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See generally&nbsp;<\/em>Dov Fox &amp; Alex Stein,&nbsp;<em>Dualism and Doctrine<\/em>, 90 IND. L.J. 975 (2015) (providing an overview of mind-body dualism in U.S. law).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Id.<\/em><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Martha J. Farah,<em>Neuroethics: The Practical and the Philosophical<\/em>, 9 <span class=\"smallcaps\">TRENDS IN COGNITIVE SCI.<\/span> 34, 38\u201339 (2005).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See id.<\/em><\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Fox &amp; Stein,&nbsp;<em>supra&nbsp;<\/em>note 7, at 975.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_744_1_12');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_744_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>See, e.g.<\/em>, Nita A. Farahany,&nbsp;<em>Incriminating Thoughts<\/em>, 64 STAN. L. REV. 351, 353 (2012).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_744_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_744_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_744_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_744_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_744_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_744_1').text('+'); } function footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_744_1() { if (jQuery('#footnote_references_container_744_1').is(':hidden')) { footnote_expand_reference_container_744_1(); } else { footnote_collapse_reference_container_744_1(); } } function footnote_moveToReference_744_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_744_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } } function footnote_moveToAnchor_744_1(p_str_TargetID) { footnote_expand_reference_container_744_1(); var l_obj_Target = jQuery('#' + p_str_TargetID); if (l_obj_Target.length) { jQuery( 'html, body' ).delay( 0 ); jQuery('html, body').animate({ scrollTop: l_obj_Target.offset().top - window.innerHeight * 0.2 }, 380); } }<\/script>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>In&nbsp;Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities,11. Tex. Dep\u2019t of Hous. &amp; Cmty. Affairs v. Inclusive Cmtys. Project, Inc., 135 S. Ct. 2507 (2015).&nbsp;a case that considered durative confounding of the Fair Housing Act,22. Fair Housing Act, 42 U.S.C. 3601 (1968).&nbsp;the United States Supreme Court held that even in the absence of&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[13,16],"tags":[257,308,483],"class_list":["post-744","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-archives","category-clr-online-volume-105","tag-discriminatory-intent","tag-fair-housing-act","tag-neuroscience"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/744","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=744"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/744\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4744,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/744\/revisions\/4744"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=744"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=744"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/publications.lawschool.cornell.edu\/lawreview\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=744"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}